The Eyes Above: Space Intelligence & the Evolution of Modern Warfare

Modern war involves machines in space called satellites. These orbital platforms take pictures of the ground, listen to electronic signals, guide weapons to their targets, and maintain military communications even when normal systems are damaged. Satellites orbit Earth high above, continuously observing events below. The war in Ukraine showed these space assets are essential in how modern wars are planned, fought, and won.

The Evolution from Balloons to Satellites

In the early 1900s, armies used balloons and small planes to watch battlefields from above. These tools helped locate enemy trenches and guide artillery but were slow, fragile, and easy to target.

Today’s satellites are a significant upgrade. They fly in space and provide clear, fast, and global views of activity on the ground. These orbital systems operate continuously, day or night, in all weather conditions. Satellites combine multiple capabilities in one system, similar to how smartphones replaced single-purpose devices.

Core Functions of Satellites in War

Satellites help military forces see, hear, and act with precision. Their three most important roles are:

• Earth Observation: Satellites carry powerful cameras that take high-resolution pictures of Earth’s surface. These images help identify troop positions, roads, bridges, vehicles, and environmental changes.
• Signals Intelligence (SIGINT): This involves gathering information by intercepting electronic signals such as radio waves and radar. SIGINT satellites help track enemy communications, detect radar installations, and locate hidden activity.
• Position, Navigation, and Timing (PNT): PNT allows accurate location and time coordination. It uses satellite systems such as the Global Positioning System (GPS) from the United States and the Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) from Russia. These networks support guided weapons, troop movements, and synchronized military actions.

Together, these capabilities provide commanders with essential information to detect threats, target enemies, and coordinate operations across all warfare domains.

Ukraine’s Use of Space Capabilities Without Ownership

Ukraine does not operate its own military satellites. Instead, it relied on partnerships with private space companies to access space-based services. These partnerships gave Ukraine the tools needed to observe, communicate, and strike effectively.

• Maxar Technologies and Planet Labs are commercial Earth imaging companies that provided detailed photos of Russian troop locations and movements.
• ICEYE, a Finnish private company, builds radar satellites using Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR). SAR allows satellites to produce clear images through clouds, smoke, or darkness by bouncing radar signals off the ground.
• Starlink, created by SpaceX, is a global satellite internet network. It provided high-speed communication to Ukraine’s military forces when ground networks were cut or destroyed.

In June 2022, Ukraine combined radar data from ICEYE and GPS guidance to launch a precision strike using the High Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS). HIMARS is a mobile missile launcher that fires guided rockets. The strike successfully hit a Russian ammunition depot and forced a change in Russian logistics.

Russia’s Military Satellite Systems and Limitations

Russia entered the war with a larger military satellite fleet and used several systems for navigation, observation, and signal monitoring:

• GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System): Russia’s satellite navigation system, similar to the U.S. GPS. It provides accurate coordinates for weapons and vehicles.
• Persona and Bars-M satellites: Optical imaging systems that take photographs of terrain, roads, and military positions.
• SAR satellites: Radar satellites that allow Russia to see through clouds and during nighttime.
• Electronic Intelligence (ELINT) satellites: These detect and collect radio and radar emissions from enemy forces. ELINT helps understand enemy radar systems, communication patterns, and electronic movements.

Despite these capabilities, Russia faced challenges:

• Many satellites were outdated and slow to deliver data.
• Western commercial providers stopped sharing imagery with Russia after the war began.
• Russia relied on Chinese radar providers to fill gaps.
• On the first day of the invasion, Russia launched a cyberattack on Viasat, a European satellite internet provider, cutting off Ukrainian satellite internet access in key regions.

The Strategic Importance of Satellites

Satellites are vital for military coordination, communication, and precision. If damaged or lost, entire operations may suffer:

• Reduced accuracy: Guided weapons and navigation tools may fail.
• Lost communication: Units may not send or receive commands.
• Reduced awareness: Enemy activity may go undetected.
• Slowed decisions: Without information, military responses may be delayed.

Satellites are not just support tools but central elements that connect and enable all parts of modern warfare.

Artificial Intelligence in Space-Based Warfare

Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to smart computer systems that learn and make decisions. In warfare, AI analyzes satellite data faster and more accurately than humans. AI supports operations by:

• Detecting patterns and changes in satellite images, such as sudden vehicle movements or destruction.
• Translating intercepted foreign messages instantly.
• Operating loitering munitions, small drones that hover over a target area and strike at the right moment.
• Predicting enemy movements based on past behavior and new information.

By linking sensors directly to decision-making systems, AI reduces the time from threat detection to action.

Threats to Satellite Operations

Satellites are powerful but vulnerable. Militaries must protect space systems from growing threats:

• Anti-Satellite Weapons (ASAT): Missiles designed to destroy satellites. Russia’s 2021 ASAT test shattered one of its own satellites into thousands of pieces, creating long-lasting debris that threatens other satellites.
• Cyberattacks: Hacker intrusions that may disable satellites, steal data, or send false signals.
• Signal jamming: Disrupting GPS or radio signals, causing weapons to miss or units to lose contact.
• Dual-use systems: Satellites serving both civilian and military purposes. Attacks on these may disrupt peaceful services like weather forecasting or emergency response.

Protecting space assets is now as critical as defending ground bases.

Integrated Military Strategy Across All Domains

Modern warfare spans five domains: land, air, sea, space, and cyber. Cyber includes computers, networks, and digital communication systems. Cyber warfare involves hacking, electronic attacks, and defense against digital threats.

To succeed, militaries employ two key strategies:

• Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2): A U.S. military approach linking all forces, including ships, planes, drones, satellites, and ground troops, into a single connected system. This enables instant information sharing and coordinated real-time responses.
• Multi-Domain Operations (MDO): A method combining land, air, sea, space, and cyber tools simultaneously to overwhelm and outmaneuver enemies. It increases speed and flexibility through integrated use of all military assets.

Ukraine’s use of drones, AI, commercial satellites, and satellite internet shows how these strategies may be applied even without owning a dedicated space fleet.

Conclusion

Satellites are no longer just support tools. They form the central nervous system of modern warfare. They provide visibility, timing, connection, and control across every domain. Ukraine demonstrated that even without owning satellites, a country may fight smarter by using commercial systems, AI, and coordination. Just as airplanes redefined warfare in the early 20th century, satellites are shaping how future battles are planned, fought, and won. The power to see first, act faster, and connect everything from land to space now defines military strength.

The Evolution of Ground Warfare: Adapting Maneuver Tactics to Modern Technology

Maneuver warfare, a strategy traditionally centered on speed, flexibility, and surprise, is being reshaped by modern technological advancements. The battlefield today is increasingly defined by tools such as drones, satellites, and cyber operations, which challenge traditional tactics. These technologies allow forces to track movements in real-time, making it more difficult to achieve surprise or maneuver undetected. To succeed in the modern battlefield, military forces may need to adapt by integrating new methods such as deception, cyber warfare, and electronic warfare to overcome the challenges posed by modern defense systems.

What Is Maneuver Warfare?

Maneuver warfare focuses on outmaneuvering the enemy through speed, surprise, and flexibility rather than relying on overwhelming force. The objective is to disrupt the enemy’s ability to respond effectively, avoiding direct confrontation. This approach proved highly effective during World War II, exemplified by Blitzkrieg, where fast, coordinated attacks overwhelmed enemy defenses before they could react. In modern warfare, however, advancements in surveillance technologies have diminished the ability to achieve surprise, requiring a shift in tactics to navigate this new landscape.

The Role of Technology in Modern Warfare

Technological advances have transformed warfare, introducing tools that make traditional maneuver tactics increasingly difficult to execute.

• Drones and Satellites: These technologies provide real-time surveillance, enabling forces to track enemy movements and identify vulnerable targets. This constant monitoring makes it harder to move undetected.
• Precision Weapons: Guided missiles and artillery enable highly accurate targeting, but they also allow defenders to neutralize offensive movements before they succeed.
• Cyber and Electronic Warfare: Modern forces may disrupt enemy communications and surveillance systems without direct confrontation. These tools help attackers mislead or disable the enemy, offering new opportunities to gain an advantage.

These technological developments necessitate the creation of new strategies that can overcome the limitations of traditional maneuver tactics.

Defensive Dominance in Modern Warfare

Modern warfare has shifted toward defensive dominance, where technological innovations give defenders a significant edge. Tools like automated artillery, drones, and advanced sensors allow defenders to control critical terrain and counter offensive movements in real time.

• Defensive Technologies: Drones and sensors can track and neutralize enemy movements before they reach key positions, providing defenders with a strategic advantage.
• Artillery and Air Defenses: Advanced artillery systems and air defense systems enable defenders to strike at attackers before they can breach defensive positions, further complicating offensive actions.

These advancements have made it increasingly difficult for attackers to succeed without developing new strategies to counter these sophisticated defenses.

Challenges in Applying Traditional Maneuver Warfare

Several challenges complicate the application of traditional maneuver warfare in modern conflicts:

• Detection and Surveillance: ISR technologies, including satellites and drones, allow real-time tracking of movements, limiting the effectiveness of surprise attacks. This constant surveillance reduces the ability to maneuver undetected.
• Lack of Surprise: The element of surprise, once a key advantage of maneuver warfare, is diminished due to pervasive surveillance. Even well-planned movements may be detected before execution.
• Modern Defensive Systems: Automated artillery and air defense systems can neutralize offensive actions before they succeed, undermining traditional tactics.
• Coordination Failures: Successful maneuver warfare requires seamless coordination between military branches. In modern conflicts, poor coordination between these branches may lead to failed offensives, as branches may not act in sync.

Adapting Maneuver Warfare to the Digital Battlefield

To succeed in modern warfare, military strategies may need to evolve alongside technological advancements. While traditional tactics remain valuable, they must be complemented by newer methods such as deception, cyber warfare, and electronic warfare.

• Deception: Modern forces may rely on creating false movements, fake positions, or misleading signals to confuse the enemy, enabling effective maneuvering without detection.
• Cyber Warfare: Disrupting the enemy’s ability to communicate or gather intelligence may prevent them from organizing an effective response, providing maneuvering forces with a tactical advantage.
• Electronic Warfare: Jamming radar and communication systems may reduce the effectiveness of enemy defenses, allowing attacking forces to operate more freely and gain a strategic edge.

These modern tools—deception, cyber warfare, and electronic warfare—are essential for adapting maneuver warfare to the digital battlefield.

Lessons from Recent Conflicts

Recent conflicts provide valuable lessons about the evolving nature of warfare and the role of modern technologies in military strategy:

• Surveillance and Intelligence: The use of ISR systems and drones in recent operations highlights how surveillance limits the effectiveness of surprise. Consequently, maneuver warfare now relies more on deception and counter-surveillance to avoid detection. For example, in Ukraine, the widespread use of drones and satellite surveillance has greatly reduced the ability of forces to operate undetected, forcing a shift towards more deceptive tactics.
• Defensive Systems: The deployment of modern defensive technologies, such as automated artillery and drone surveillance, provides significant advantages to defending forces. Attackers must adapt and develop strategies that can overcome these barriers, as seen in Ukraine’s struggle to penetrate Russia’s advanced air defense systems.

These lessons demonstrate that while maneuver warfare remains relevant, it must evolve to incorporate modern technologies such as cyber warfare and electronic warfare to remain effective.

Conclusion

The rise of modern technologies has fundamentally altered the landscape of warfare. While maneuver warfare remains a core element of military strategy, it must adapt to the challenges posed by advanced ISR systems, precision weapons, and sophisticated defensive technologies. Success in future conflicts will depend on the integration of cyber operations, electronic warfare, and deception to complement traditional tactics. The future of maneuver warfare lies not only in speed, but in the ability to outthink and outmaneuver the enemy through innovation, strategic flexibility, and technological expertise.

Strategic Space Domains: Operations & Capabilities

Introduction to Space as a Strategic Domain

Space has evolved from an area of exploration to a critical domain with major implications for national security, global communication, and technological progress. Initially focused on research, space now plays an essential role in both military and commercial sectors, intersecting with areas like defense, intelligence, navigation, and environmental monitoring. Recognizing space as a potential warfighting domain highlights its strategic importance in today’s security landscape.

Characteristics of Space and Orbital Regimes

Key Characteristics of Space

Space poses unique environmental challenges due to its extreme conditions. Key aspects include:

• Microgravity: This low-gravity environment affects materials, human health, and equipment design.
• Vacuum Environment: With no atmosphere, there’s no air for heat dissipation, requiring special cooling systems for satellites and equipment.
• Radiation Exposure: Space has high levels of cosmic and solar radiation, which can damage electronics and materials over time.
• Vast Distances and Isolation: Communication across these distances has delays, meaning many spacecraft must operate autonomously.

Types of Orbits and Their Purposes

Satellites use different orbits depending on their mission, with each orbit offering specific benefits based on altitude and coverage:

1. Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Closest to Earth, typically 160-2,000 km above, ideal for observation, environmental monitoring, and some communication.
2. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): About 2,000 to 35,786 km up, often used for navigation systems like GPS, providing broad coverage.
3. Geostationary Orbit (GEO): Positioned at 35,786 km, GEO satellites stay fixed over one spot on Earth, perfect for weather and broadcast services.
4. Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO): With an elongated path, HEO provides extended coverage over polar regions, useful for certain communication and reconnaissance needs.

Each orbit serves different mission needs, allowing space assets to function effectively across diverse applications.

Key Space Missions and Their Capabilities

Both the military and civilian sectors rely on a variety of space missions to support communication, navigation, intelligence, and environmental data gathering. Here’s a look at the major space missions:

Satellite Communications (SATCOM)

SATCOM supports critical communication needs when ground networks are unavailable or vulnerable. Space-based communication is essential for both civilian and military use, especially in remote or contested areas.

• Commercial vs. Military SATCOM: Commercial satellites support general communication, while military SATCOM is protected against interference.
• Global Reach: SATCOM enables secure, reliable communication across large distances, crucial for military coordination and emergency responses.

Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR)

ISR provides essential situational awareness by monitoring activities globally, which informs tactical and strategic planning.

• Optical and Radar Imaging: Satellites capture images and track objects, supporting threat detection and pattern analysis.
• Signals Intelligence (SIGINT): Satellites monitor electromagnetic signals, providing insights into potential adversary actions.

Position, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)

Systems like GPS deliver critical information for navigation, targeting, and time synchronization. PNT data is foundational for precise military operations and daily civilian applications.

• Global Accessibility: Ensures accurate location and timing data worldwide.
• Enhanced Targeting and Accuracy: Supports precision-guided systems, improving military effectiveness.

Missile Warning

Missile warning systems use infrared sensors to detect and track missile launches, enabling timely defensive responses and supporting global security.

• Launch Detection: Detects infrared heat from launches, providing rapid alerts.
• Strategic Deterrence: Helps protect national and allied assets, maintaining security.

Environmental Monitoring

Satellites also track weather patterns, climate changes, and natural disasters, assisting in military and civilian planning and response.

• Weather Prediction: Helps with operational planning, aviation safety, and disaster readiness.
• Climate Data: Provides information for long-term climate study and environmental management.

Space as a Warfighting Domain

Space has become essential in modern warfare. Satellites are crucial for communication, intelligence, and navigation, and potential threats to these assets pose significant risks.

• Potential Threats and Vulnerabilities: Satellites face threats from anti-satellite (ASAT) weapons, cyberattacks, and jamming. Disrupting satellite functions can impair military operations.

• Space Domain Awareness (SDA): SDA involves tracking space assets and potential threats to maintain operational security.

• Resilience and Redundancy: To counter threats, space systems are designed with redundancies, ensuring they continue to operate even if one component is attacked.

• Policy and International Agreements: Agreements like the Outer Space Treaty aim to keep space a peaceful domain, though growing competition may lead to new security standards.

The Emerging Space Industry and Commercial Contributions

The rise of commercial space companies has transformed space into a more dynamic and accessible industry, with both economic and strategic implications:

• Miniaturized Satellites and Constellations: Small, cost-efficient satellites in large groups (constellations) provide extensive network coverage, such as global internet access.
• Space Tourism and Exploration: Companies like SpaceX and Blue Origin are developing space tourism, pushing technology and regulatory frameworks forward.
• Commercial Launch Services: Private companies have lowered launch costs, providing flexible access to space for research, communication, and defense.
• Public-Private Partnerships: Government and commercial collaborations leverage cost efficiencies and innovations to advance space capabilities while maintaining security.

The growth of commercial space ventures supports economic development, technological advancement, and national security interests.

The Operational Importance of Space-Based Capabilities

Space assets are crucial for maintaining military advantage, supporting real-time decision-making, and enhancing the precision needed in modern warfare.

• Impact of Space Asset Denial: Losing access to space assets can hinder communication, navigation, and reconnaissance, affecting operational readiness.

• Integration with Field Operations: Space assets provide intelligence and navigation data essential for tactical planning, improving effectiveness in the field.

• Support for Joint Operations: Space capabilities improve interoperability between allied forces, providing reliable, standardized data for joint missions.

Conclusion: The Future of Space as a Strategic Domain

Space is now integral to military strategy, global communications, and technological progress. The expansion of the commercial space industry alongside military needs underscores the importance of secure, resilient space-based assets. As technology advances, the role of space will only grow, emphasizing the need for strong defense measures, international cooperation, and regulatory frameworks.